511 lines
20 KiB
Plaintext
511 lines
20 KiB
Plaintext
PEP: 255
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Title: Simple Generators
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Version: $Revision$
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Author: nas@python.ca (Neil Schemenauer),
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tim.one@home.com (Tim Peters),
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magnus@hetland.org (Magnus Lie Hetland)
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Discussion-To: python-iterators@lists.sourceforge.net
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Status: Final
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Type: Standards Track
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Requires: 234
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Created: 18-May-2001
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Python-Version: 2.2
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Post-History: 14-Jun-2001, 23-Jun-2001
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Abstract
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This PEP introduces the concept of generators to Python, as well
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as a new statement used in conjunction with them, the "yield"
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statement.
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Motivation
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When a producer function has a hard enough job that it requires
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maintaining state between values produced, most programming languages
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offer no pleasant and efficient solution beyond adding a callback
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function to the producer's argument list, to be called with each value
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produced.
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For example, tokenize.py in the standard library takes this approach:
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the caller must pass a "tokeneater" function to tokenize(), called
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whenever tokenize() finds the next token. This allows tokenize to be
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coded in a natural way, but programs calling tokenize are typically
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convoluted by the need to remember between callbacks which token(s)
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were seen last. The tokeneater function in tabnanny.py is a good
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example of that, maintaining a state machine in global variables, to
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remember across callbacks what it has already seen and what it hopes to
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see next. This was difficult to get working correctly, and is still
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difficult for people to understand. Unfortunately, that's typical of
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this approach.
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An alternative would have been for tokenize to produce an entire parse
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of the Python program at once, in a large list. Then tokenize clients
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could be written in a natural way, using local variables and local
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control flow (such as loops and nested if statements) to keep track of
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their state. But this isn't practical: programs can be very large, so
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no a priori bound can be placed on the memory needed to materialize the
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whole parse; and some tokenize clients only want to see whether
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something specific appears early in the program (e.g., a future
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statement, or, as is done in IDLE, just the first indented statement),
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and then parsing the whole program first is a severe waste of time.
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Another alternative would be to make tokenize an iterator[1],
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delivering the next token whenever its .next() method is invoked. This
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is pleasant for the caller in the same way a large list of results
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would be, but without the memory and "what if I want to get out early?"
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drawbacks. However, this shifts the burden on tokenize to remember
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*its* state between .next() invocations, and the reader need only
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glance at tokenize.tokenize_loop() to realize what a horrid chore that
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would be. Or picture a recursive algorithm for producing the nodes of
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a general tree structure: to cast that into an iterator framework
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requires removing the recursion manually and maintaining the state of
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the traversal by hand.
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A fourth option is to run the producer and consumer in separate
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threads. This allows both to maintain their states in natural ways,
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and so is pleasant for both. Indeed, Demo/threads/Generator.py in the
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Python source distribution provides a usable synchronized-communication
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class for doing that in a general way. This doesn't work on platforms
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without threads, though, and is very slow on platforms that do
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(compared to what is achievable without threads).
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A final option is to use the Stackless[2][3] variant implementation of
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Python instead, which supports lightweight coroutines. This has much
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the same programmatic benefits as the thread option, but is much more
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efficient. However, Stackless is a controversial rethinking of the
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Python core, and it may not be possible for Jython to implement the
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same semantics. This PEP isn't the place to debate that, so suffice it
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to say here that generators provide a useful subset of Stackless
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functionality in a way that fits easily into the current CPython
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implementation, and is believed to be relatively straightforward for
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other Python implementations.
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That exhausts the current alternatives. Some other high-level
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languages provide pleasant solutions, notably iterators in Sather[4],
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which were inspired by iterators in CLU; and generators in Icon[5], a
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novel language where every expression "is a generator". There are
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differences among these, but the basic idea is the same: provide a
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kind of function that can return an intermediate result ("the next
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value") to its caller, but maintaining the function's local state so
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that the function can be resumed again right where it left off. A
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very simple example:
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def fib():
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a, b = 0, 1
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while 1:
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yield b
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a, b = b, a+b
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When fib() is first invoked, it sets a to 0 and b to 1, then yields b
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back to its caller. The caller sees 1. When fib is resumed, from its
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point of view the yield statement is really the same as, say, a print
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statement: fib continues after the yield with all local state intact.
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a and b then become 1 and 1, and fib loops back to the yield, yielding
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1 to its invoker. And so on. From fib's point of view it's just
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delivering a sequence of results, as if via callback. But from its
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caller's point of view, the fib invocation is an iterable object that
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can be resumed at will. As in the thread approach, this allows both
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sides to be coded in the most natural ways; but unlike the thread
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approach, this can be done efficiently and on all platforms. Indeed,
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resuming a generator should be no more expensive than a function call.
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The same kind of approach applies to many producer/consumer functions.
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For example, tokenize.py could yield the next token instead of invoking
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a callback function with it as argument, and tokenize clients could
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iterate over the tokens in a natural way: a Python generator is a kind
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of Python iterator[1], but of an especially powerful kind.
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Specification: Yield
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A new statement is introduced:
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yield_stmt: "yield" expression_list
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"yield" is a new keyword, so a future statement[8] is needed to phase
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this in: in the initial release, a module desiring to use generators
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must include the line
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from __future__ import generators
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near the top (see PEP 236[8]) for details). Modules using the
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identifier "yield" without a future statement will trigger warnings.
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In the following release, yield will be a language keyword and the
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future statement will no longer be needed.
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The yield statement may only be used inside functions. A function that
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contains a yield statement is called a generator function. A generator
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function is an ordinary function object in all respects, but has the
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new CO_GENERATOR flag set in the code object's co_flags member.
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When a generator function is called, the actual arguments are bound to
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function-local formal argument names in the usual way, but no code in
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the body of the function is executed. Instead a generator-iterator
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object is returned; this conforms to the iterator protocol[6], so in
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particular can be used in for-loops in a natural way. Note that when
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the intent is clear from context, the unqualified name "generator" may
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be used to refer either to a generator-function or a generator-
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iterator.
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Each time the .next() method of a generator-iterator is invoked, the
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code in the body of the generator-function is executed until a yield
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or return statement (see below) is encountered, or until the end of
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the body is reached.
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If a yield statement is encountered, the state of the function is
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frozen, and the value of expression_list is returned to .next()'s
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caller. By "frozen" we mean that all local state is retained,
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including the current bindings of local variables, the instruction
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pointer, and the internal evaluation stack: enough information is
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saved so that the next time .next() is invoked, the function can
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proceed exactly as if the yield statement were just another external
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call.
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Restriction: A yield statement is not allowed in the try clause of a
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try/finally construct. The difficulty is that there's no guarantee
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the generator will ever be resumed, hence no guarantee that the finally
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block will ever get executed; that's too much a violation of finally's
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purpose to bear.
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Restriction: A generator cannot be resumed while it is actively
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running:
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>>> def g():
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... i = me.next()
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... yield i
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>>> me = g()
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>>> me.next()
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Traceback (most recent call last):
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...
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File "<string>", line 2, in g
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ValueError: generator already executing
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Specification: Return
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A generator function can also contain return statements of the form:
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"return"
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Note that an expression_list is not allowed on return statements
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in the body of a generator (although, of course, they may appear in
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the bodies of non-generator functions nested within the generator).
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When a return statement is encountered, control proceeds as in any
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function return, executing the appropriate finally clauses (if any
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exist). Then a StopIteration exception is raised, signalling that the
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iterator is exhausted. A StopIteration exception is also raised if
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control flows off the end of the generator without an explict return.
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Note that return means "I'm done, and have nothing interesting to
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return", for both generator functions and non-generator functions.
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Note that return isn't always equivalent to raising StopIteration: the
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difference lies in how enclosing try/except constructs are treated.
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For example,
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>>> def f1():
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... try:
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... return
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... except:
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... yield 1
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>>> print list(f1())
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[]
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because, as in any function, return simply exits, but
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>>> def f2():
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... try:
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... raise StopIteration
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... except:
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... yield 42
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>>> print list(f2())
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[42]
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because StopIteration is captured by a bare "except", as is any
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exception.
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Specification: Generators and Exception Propagation
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If an unhandled exception-- including, but not limited to,
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StopIteration --is raised by, or passes through, a generator function,
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then the exception is passed on to the caller in the usual way, and
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subsequent attempts to resume the generator function raise
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StopIteration. In other words, an unhandled exception terminates a
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generator's useful life.
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Example (not idiomatic but to illustrate the point):
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>>> def f():
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... return 1/0
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>>> def g():
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... yield f() # the zero division exception propagates
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... yield 42 # and we'll never get here
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>>> k = g()
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>>> k.next()
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Traceback (most recent call last):
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File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
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File "<stdin>", line 2, in g
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File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
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ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero
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>>> k.next() # and the generator cannot be resumed
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Traceback (most recent call last):
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File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
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StopIteration
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>>>
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Specification: Try/Except/Finally
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As noted earlier, yield is not allowed in the try clause of a try/
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finally construct. A consequence is that generators should allocate
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critical resources with great care. There is no restriction on yield
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otherwise appearing in finally clauses, except clauses, or in the try
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clause of a try/except construct:
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>>> def f():
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... try:
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... yield 1
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... try:
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... yield 2
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... 1/0
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... yield 3 # never get here
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... except ZeroDivisionError:
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... yield 4
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... yield 5
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... raise
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... except:
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... yield 6
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... yield 7 # the "raise" above stops this
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... except:
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... yield 8
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... yield 9
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... try:
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... x = 12
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... finally:
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... yield 10
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... yield 11
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>>> print list(f())
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[1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11]
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>>>
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Example
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# A binary tree class.
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class Tree:
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def __init__(self, label, left=None, right=None):
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self.label = label
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self.left = left
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self.right = right
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def __repr__(self, level=0, indent=" "):
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s = level*indent + `self.label`
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if self.left:
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s = s + "\n" + self.left.__repr__(level+1, indent)
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if self.right:
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s = s + "\n" + self.right.__repr__(level+1, indent)
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return s
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def __iter__(self):
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return inorder(self)
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# Create a Tree from a list.
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def tree(list):
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n = len(list)
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if n == 0:
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return []
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i = n / 2
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return Tree(list[i], tree(list[:i]), tree(list[i+1:]))
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# A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
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def inorder(t):
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if t:
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for x in inorder(t.left):
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yield x
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yield t.label
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for x in inorder(t.right):
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yield x
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# Show it off: create a tree.
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t = tree("ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ")
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# Print the nodes of the tree in in-order.
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for x in t:
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print x,
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print
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# A non-recursive generator.
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def inorder(node):
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stack = []
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while node:
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while node.left:
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stack.append(node)
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node = node.left
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yield node.label
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while not node.right:
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try:
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node = stack.pop()
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except IndexError:
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return
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yield node.label
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node = node.right
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# Exercise the non-recursive generator.
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for x in t:
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print x,
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print
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Both output blocks display:
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A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
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Q & A
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Q. Why not a new keyword instead of reusing "def"?
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A. See BDFL Pronouncements section below.
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Q. Why a new keyword for "yield"? Why not a builtin function instead?
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A. Control flow is much better expressed via keyword in Python, and
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yield is a control construct. It's also believed that efficient
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implementation in Jython requires that the compiler be able to
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determine potential suspension points at compile-time, and a new
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keyword makes that easy. The CPython referrence implementation also
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exploits it heavily, to detect which functions *are* generator-
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functions (although a new keyword in place of "def" would solve that
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for CPython -- but people asking the "why a new keyword?" question
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don't want any new keyword).
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Q: Then why not some other special syntax without a new keyword? For
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example, one of these instead of "yield 3":
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return 3 and continue
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return and continue 3
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return generating 3
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continue return 3
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return >> , 3
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from generator return 3
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return >> 3
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return << 3
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>> 3
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<< 3
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* 3
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A: Did I miss one <wink>? Out of hundreds of messages, I counted three
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suggesting such an alternative, and extracted the above from them.
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It would be nice not to need a new keyword, but nicer to make yield
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very clear -- I don't want to have to *deduce* that a yield is
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occurring from making sense of a previously senseless sequence of
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keywords or operators. Still, if this attracts enough interest,
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proponents should settle on a single consensus suggestion, and Guido
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will Pronounce on it.
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Q. Why allow "return" at all? Why not force termination to be spelled
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"raise StopIteration"?
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A. The mechanics of StopIteration are low-level details, much like the
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mechanics of IndexError in Python 2.1: the implementation needs to
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do *something* well-defined under the covers, and Python exposes
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these mechanisms for advanced users. That's not an argument for
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forcing everyone to work at that level, though. "return" means "I'm
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done" in any kind of function, and that's easy to explain and to use.
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Note that "return" isn't always equivalent to "raise StopIteration"
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in try/except construct, either (see the "Specification: Return"
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section).
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Q. Then why not allow an expression on "return" too?
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A. Perhaps we will someday. In Icon, "return expr" means both "I'm
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done", and "but I have one final useful value to return too, and
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this is it". At the start, and in the absence of compelling uses
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for "return expr", it's simply cleaner to use "yield" exclusively
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for delivering values.
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BDFL Pronouncements
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Issue: Introduce another new keyword (say, "gen" or "generator") in
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place of "def", or otherwise alter the syntax, to distinguish
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generator-functions from non-generator functions.
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Con: In practice (how you think about them), generators *are*
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functions, but with the twist that they're resumable. The mechanics of
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how they're set up is a comparatively minor technical issue, and
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introducing a new keyword would unhelpfully overemphasize the
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mechanics of how generators get started (a vital but tiny part of a
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generator's life).
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Pro: In reality (how you think about them), generator-functions are
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actually factory functions that produce generator-iterators as if by
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magic. In this respect they're radically different from non-generator
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functions, acting more like a constructor than a function, so reusing
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"def" is at best confusing. A "yield" statement buried in the body is
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not enough warning that the semantics are so different.
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BDFL: "def" it stays. No argument on either side is totally
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convincing, so I have consulted my language designer's intuition. It
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tells me that the syntax proposed in the PEP is exactly right - not too
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hot, not too cold. But, like the Oracle at Delphi in Greek mythology,
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it doesn't tell me why, so I don't have a rebuttal for the arguments
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against the PEP syntax. The best I can come up with (apart from
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agreeing with the rebuttals ... already made) is "FUD". If this had
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been part of the language from day one, I very much doubt it would have
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made Andrew Kuchling's "Python Warts" page.
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Reference Implementation
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The current implementation, in a preliminary state (no docs, but well
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tested and solid), is part of Python's CVS development tree[9]. Using
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this requires that you build Python from source.
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This was derived from an earlier patch by Neil Schemenauer[7].
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Footnotes and References
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[1] PEP 234, Iterators, Yee, Van Rossum
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http://www.python.org/peps/pep-0234.html
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[2] http://www.stackless.com/
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[3] PEP 219, Stackless Python, McMillan
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http://www.python.org/peps/pep-0219.html
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[4] "Iteration Abstraction in Sather"
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Murer , Omohundro, Stoutamire and Szyperski
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http://www.icsi.berkeley.edu/~sather/Publications/toplas.html
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[5] http://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/
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[6] The concept of iterators is described in PEP 234. See [1] above.
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[7] http://python.ca/nas/python/generator.diff
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[8] PEP 236, Back to the __future__, Peters
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http://www.python.org/peps/pep-0236.html
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[9] To experiment with this implementation, check out Python from CVS
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according to the instructions at
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http://sf.net/cvs/?group_id=5470
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Note that the std test Lib/test/test_generators.py contains many
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examples, including all those in this PEP.
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Copyright
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This document has been placed in the public domain.
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Local Variables:
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mode: indented-text
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indent-tabs-mode: nil
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End:
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