411 lines
18 KiB
Plaintext
411 lines
18 KiB
Plaintext
PEP: 252
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Title: Making Types Look More Like Classes
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Version: $Revision$
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Author: guido@python.org (Guido van Rossum)
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Status: Draft
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Type: Standards Track
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Python-Version: 2.2
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Created: 19-Apr-2001
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Post-History:
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Abstract
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This PEP proposes changes to the introspection API for types that
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makes them look more like classes. For example, type(x) will be
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equivalent to x.__class__ for most built-in types. When C is
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x.__class__, x.meth(a) will be equivalent to C.meth(x, a), and
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C.__dict__ contains descriptors for x's methods and other
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attributes.
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The PEP also introduces a new approach to specifying attributes,
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using attribute descriptors, or descriptors for short.
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Descriptors unify and generalize several different common
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mechanisms used for describing attributes: a descriptor can
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describe a method, a typed field in the object structure, or a
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generalized attribute represented by getter and setter functions.
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Introduction
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One of Python's oldest language warts is the difference between
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classes and types. For example, you can't directly subclass the
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dictionary type, and the introspection interface for finding out
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what methods and instance variables an object has is different for
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types and for classes.
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Healing the class/type split is a big effort, because it affects
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many aspects of how Python is implemented. This PEP concerns
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itself with making the introspection API for types look the same
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as that for classes. Other PEPs will propose making classes look
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more like types, and subclassing from built-in types; these topics
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are not on the table for this PEP.
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Introspection APIs
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Introspection concerns itself with finding out what attributes an
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object has. Python's very general getattr/setattr API makes it
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impossible to guarantee that there always is a way to get a list
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of all attributes supported by a specific object, but in practice
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two conventions have appeared that together work for almost all
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objects. I'll call them the class-based introspection API and the
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type-based introspection API; class API and type API for short.
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The class-based introspection API is used primarily for class
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instances; it is also used by Jim Fulton's ExtensionClasses. It
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assumes that all data attributes of an object x are stored in the
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dictionary x.__dict__, and that all methods and class variables
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can be found by inspection of x's class, written as x.__class__.
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Classes have a __dict__ attribute, which yields a dictionary
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containing methods and class variables defined by the class
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itself, and a __bases__ attribute, which is a tuple of base
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classes that must be inspected recursively. Some assumption here
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are:
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- attributes defined in the instance dict override attributes
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defined by the object's class;
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- attributes defined in a derived class override attributes
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defined in a base class;
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- attributes in an earlier base class (meaning occurring earlier
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in __bases__) override attributes in a later base class.
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(The last two rules together are often summarized as the
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left-to-right, depth-first rule for attribute search.)
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The type-based introspection API is supported in one form or
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another by most built-in objects. It uses two special attributes,
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__members__ and __methods__. The __methods__ attribute, if
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present, is a list of method names supported by the object. The
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__members__ attribute, if present, is a list of data attribute
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names supported by the object.
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The type API is sometimes combined by a __dict__ that works the
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same was as for instances (e.g., for function objects in Python
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2.1, f.__dict__ contains f's dynamic attributes, while
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f.__members__ lists the names of f's statically defined
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attributes).
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Some caution must be exercised: some objects don't list theire
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"intrinsic" attributes (e.g. __dict__ and __doc__) in __members__,
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while others do; sometimes attribute names that occur both in
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__members__ or __methods__ and as keys in __dict__, in which case
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it's anybody's guess whether the value found in __dict__ is used
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or not.
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The type API has never been carefully specified. It is part of
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Python folklore, and most third party extensions support it
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because they follow examples that support it. Also, any type that
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uses Py_FindMethod() and/or PyMember_Get() in its tp_getattr
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handler supports it, because these two functions special-case the
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attribute names __methods__ and __members__, respectively.
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Jim Fulton's ExtensionClasses ignore the type API, and instead
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emulate the class API, which is more powerful. In this PEP, I
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propose to phase out the type API in favor of supporting the class
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API for all types.
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One argument in favor of the class API is that it doesn't require
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you to create an instance in order to find out which attributes a
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type supports; this in turn is useful for documentation
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processors. For example, the socket module exports the SocketType
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object, but this currently doesn't tell us what methods are
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defined on socket objects. Using the class API, SocketType shows
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us exactly what the methods for socket objects are, and we can
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even extract their docstrings, without creating a socket. (Since
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this is a C extension module, the source-scanning approach to
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docstring extraction isn't feasible in this case.)
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Specification of the class-based introspection API
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Objects may have two kinds of attributes: static and dynamic. The
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names and sometimes other properties of static attributes are
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knowable by inspection of the object's type or class, which is
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accessible through obj.__class__ or type(obj). (I'm using type
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and class interchangeably, because that's the goal of the
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exercise.)
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(XXX static and dynamic are lousy names, because the "static"
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attributes may actually behave quite dynamically.)
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The names and values of dynamic properties are typically stored in
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a dictionary, and this dictionary is typically accessible as
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obj.__dict__. The rest of this specification is more concerned
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with discovering the names and properties of static attributes
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than with dynamic attributes.
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Examples of dynamic attributes are instance variables of class
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instances, module attributes, etc. Examples of static attributes
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are the methods of built-in objects like lists and dictionaries,
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and the attributes of frame and code objects (c.co_code,
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c.co_filename, etc.). When an object with dynamic attributes
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exposes these through its __dict__ attribute, __dict__ is a static
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attribute.
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In the discussion below, I distinguish two kinds of objects:
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regular objects (e.g. lists, ints, functions) and meta-objects.
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Meta-objects are types and classes. Meta-objects are also regular
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objects, but we're mostly interested in them because they are
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referenced by the __class__ attribute of regular objects (or by
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the __bases__ attribute of meta-objects).
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The class introspection API consists of the following elements:
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- the __class__ and __dict__ attributes on regular objects;
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- the __bases__ and __dict__ attributes on meta-objects;
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- precedence rules;
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- attribute descriptors.
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1. The __dict__ attribute on regular objects
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A regular object may have a __dict__ attribute. If it does,
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this should be a mapping (not necessarily a dictionary)
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supporting at least __getitem__, keys(), and has_item(). This
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gives the dynamic attributes of the object. The keys in the
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mapping give attribute names, and the corresponding values give
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their values.
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Typically, the value of an attribute with a given name is the
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same object as the value corresponding to that name as a key in
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the __dict__. In othe words, obj.__dict__['spam'] is obj.spam.
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(But see the precedence rules below; a static attribute with
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the same name *may* override the dictionary item.)
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2. The __class__ attribute on regular objects
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A regular object may have a __class__ attributes. If it does,
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this references a meta-object. A meta-object can define static
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attributes for the regular object whose __class__ it is.
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3. The __dict__ attribute on meta-objects
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A meta-object may have a __dict__ attribute, of the same form
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as the __dict__ attribute for regular objects (mapping, etc).
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If it does, the keys of the meta-object's __dict__ are names of
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static attributes for the corresponding regular object. The
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values are attribute descriptors; we'll explain these later.
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(An unbound method is a special case of an attribute
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descriptor.)
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Becase a meta-object is also a regular object, the items in a
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meta-object's __dict__ correspond to attributes of the
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meta-object; however, some transformation may be applied, and
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bases (see below) may define additional dynamic attributes. In
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other words, mobj.spam is not always mobj.__dict__['spam'].
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(This rule contains a loophole because for classes, if
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C.__dict__['spam'] is a function, C.spam is an unbound method
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object.)
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4. The __bases__ attribute on meta-objects
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A meta-object may have a __bases__ attribute. If it does, this
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should be a sequence (not necessarily a tuple) of other
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meta-objects, the bases. An absent __bases__ is equivalent to
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an empty sequece of bases. There must never be a cycle in the
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relationship between meta objects defined by __bases__
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attributes; in other words, the __bases__ attributes define an
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inheritance tree, where the root of the tree is the __class__
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attribute of a regular object, and the leaves of the trees are
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meta-objects without bases. The __dict__ attributes of the
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meta-objects in the inheritance tree supply attribute
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descriptors for the regular object whose __class__ is at the
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top of the inheritance tree.
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5. Precedence rules
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When two meta-objects in the inheritance tree both define an
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attribute descriptor with the same name, the left-to-right
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depth-first rule applies. (XXX define rigorously.)
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When a dynamic attribute (one defined in a regular object's
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__dict__) has the same name as a static attribute (one defined
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by a meta-object in the inheritance tree rooted at the regular
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object's __class__), the dynamic attribute *usually* wins, but
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for some attributes the meta-object may specify that the static
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attribute overrides the dynamic attribute.
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(We can't have a simples rule like "static overrides dynamic"
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or "dynamic overrides static", because some static attributes
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indeed override dynamic attributes, e.g. a key '__class__' in
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an instance's __dict__ is ignored in favor of the statically
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defined __class__ pointer, but on the other hand most keys in
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inst.__dict__ override attributes defined in inst.__class__.
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The mechanism whereby a meta-object can specify that a
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particular attribute has precedence is not yet specified.)
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6. Attribute descriptors
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This is where it gets interesting -- and messy. Attribute
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descriptors (descriptors for short) are stored in the
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meta-object's __dict__, and have two uses: a descriptor can be
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used to get or set the corresponding attribute value on the
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(non-meta) object, and it has an additional interface that
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describes the attribute for documentation or introspection
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purposes.
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There is little prior art in Python for designing the
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descriptor's interface, neither for getting/setting the value
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nor for describing the attribute otherwise, except some trivial
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properties (e.g. it's reasonable to assume that __name__ and
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__doc__ should be the attribute's name and docstring). I will
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propose such an API below.
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If an object found in the meta-object's __dict__ is not an
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attribute descriptor, backward compatibility dictates
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semantics. This basically means that if it is a Python
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function or an unbound method, the attribute is a method;
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otherwise, it is the default value for a data attribute.
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Backwards compatibility also dictates that (in the absence of a
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__setattr__ method) it is legal to assign to an attribute of
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type method, and that this creates a data attribute shadowing
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the method for this particular instance. However, these
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semantics are only required for backwards compatibility with
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regular classes.
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The introspection API is a read-only API. We don't define the
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effect of assignment to any of the special attributes (__dict__,
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__class__ and __bases__), nor the effect of assignment to the
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items of a __dict__. Generally, such assignments should be
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considered off-limits. An extension of this PEP may define some
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semantics for some such assignments. (Especially because
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currently instances support assignment to __class__ and __dict__,
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and classes support assignment to __bases__ and __dict__.)
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Specification of the attribute descriptor API
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Attribute descriptors have the following attributes. In the
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examples, x is an object, C is x.__class__, x.meth() is a method,
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and x.ivar is a data attribute or instance variable.
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- name: the original attribute name. Note that because of
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aliasing and renaming, the attribute may be known under a
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different name, but this is the name under which it was born.
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Example: C.meth.name == 'meth'.
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- doc: the attribute's documentation string.
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- objclass: the class that declared this attribute. The
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descriptor only applies to objects that are instances of this
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class (this includes instances of its subclasses). Example:
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C.meth.objclass is C.
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- kind: either "method" or "data". This distinguishes between
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methods and data attributes. The primary operation on a method
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attribute is to call it. The primary operations on a data
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attribute are to get and to set it. Example: C.meth.kind ==
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'method'; C.ivar.kind == 'data'.
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- default: for optional data attributes, this gives a default or
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initial value. XXX Python has two kinds of semantics for
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referencing "absent" attributes: this may raise an
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AttributeError, or it may produce a default value stored
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somewhere in the class. There could be a flag that
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distinguishes between these two cases. Also, there could be a
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flag that tells whether it's OK to delete an attribute (and what
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happens then -- a default value takes its place, or it's truly
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gone).
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- attrclass: for data attributes, this can be the class of the
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attribute value, or None. If this is not None, the attribute
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value is restricted to being an instance of this class (or of a
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subclass thereof). If this is None, the attribute value is not
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constrained. For method attributes, this should normally be
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None (a class is not sufficient information to describe a method
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signature). If and when optional static typing is added to
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Python, this the meaning of this attribute may change to
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describe the type of the attribute.
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- signature: for methods, an object that describes the signature
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of the method. Signature objects will be described further
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below.
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- readonly: Boolean indicating whether assignment to this
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attribute is disallowed. This is usually true for methods.
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Example: C.meth.readonly == 1; C.ivar.kind == 0.
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- get(): a function of one argument that retrieves the attribute
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value from an object. Examples: C.ivar.get(x) ~~ x.ivar;
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C.meth.get(x) ~~ x.meth.
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- set(): a function of two arguments that sets the attribute value
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on the object. If readonly is set, this method raises a
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TypeError exception. Example: C.ivar.set(x, y) ~~ x.ivar = y.
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- call(): for method descriptors, this is a function of at least
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one argument that calls the method. The first argument is the
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object whose method is called; the remaining arguments
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(including keyword arguments) are passed on to the method.
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Example: C.meth.call(x, 1, 2) ~~ x.meth(1, 2).
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- bind(): for method descriptiors, this is a function of one
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argument that returns a "bound method object". This in turn can
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be called exactly like the method should be called (in fact this
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is what is returned for a bound method). This is the same as
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get(). Example: C.meth.bind(x) ~~ x.meth.
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For convenience, __name__ and __doc__ are defined as aliases for
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name and doc. Also for convenience, calling the descriptor can do
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one of three things:
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- Calling a method descriptor is the same as calling its call()
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method. Example: C.meth(x, 1, 2) ~~ x.meth(1, 2).
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- Calling a data descriptor with one argument is the same as
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calling its get() method. Example: C.ivar(x) ~~ x.ivar.
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- Calling a data descriptor with two arguments is the same as
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calling its set() method. Example: C.ivar(x, y) ~~ x.ivar = y.
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Note that this specification does not define how to create
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specific attribute descriptors. This is up to the individual
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attribute descriptor implementations, of which there may be many.
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Specification of the signature object API
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XXX
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Discussion
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XXX
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Examples
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XXX
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Backwards compatibility
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XXX
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Compatibility of C API
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XXX
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Warnings and Errors
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XXX
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Implementation
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XXX
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References
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XXX
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Copyright
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This document has been placed in the public domain.
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Local Variables:
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mode: indented-text
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indent-tabs-mode: nil
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End:
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