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PEP: 558
Title: Defined semantics for locals()
Author: Nick Coghlan <ncoghlan@gmail.com>
BDFL-Delegate: Nathaniel J. Smith
Discussions-To: https://discuss.python.org/t/pep-558-defined-semantics-for-locals/2936
Status: Draft
Type: Standards Track
Content-Type: text/x-rst
Created: 2017-09-08
Python-Version: 3.9
Post-History: 2017-09-08, 2019-05-22, 2019-05-30, 2019-12-30
Abstract
========
The semantics of the ``locals()`` builtin have historically been underspecified
and hence implementation dependent.
This PEP proposes formally standardising on the behaviour of the CPython 3.8
reference implementation for most execution scopes, with some adjustments to the
behaviour at function scope to make it more predictable and independent of the
presence or absence of tracing functions.
Rationale
=========
While the precise semantics of the ``locals()`` builtin are nominally undefined,
in practice, many Python programs depend on it behaving exactly as it behaves in
CPython (at least when no tracing functions are installed).
Other implementations such as PyPy are currently replicating that behaviour,
up to and including replication of local variable mutation bugs that
can arise when a trace hook is installed [1]_.
While this PEP considers CPython's current behaviour when no trace hooks are
installed to be largely acceptable, it considers the current
behaviour when trace hooks are installed to be problematic, as it causes bugs
like [1]_ *without* even reliably enabling the desired functionality of allowing
debuggers like ``pdb`` to mutate local variables [3]_.
Review of the initial PEP and the draft implementation then identified an
opportunity for simplification of both the documentation and implementation
of the function level ``locals()`` behaviour by updating it to return an
independent snapshot of the function locals and closure variables on each call,
rather than continuing to return the semi-dynamic snapshot that it has
historically returned in CPython.
Proposal
========
The expected semantics of the ``locals()`` builtin change based on the current
execution scope. For this purpose, the defined scopes of execution are:
* module scope: top-level module code, as well as any other code executed using
``exec()`` or ``eval()`` with a single namespace
* class scope: code in the body of a ``class`` statement, as well as any other
code executed using ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` with separate local and global
namespaces
* function scope: code in the body of a ``def`` or ``async def`` statement,
or any other construct that creates an optimized code block in CPython (e.g.
comprehensions, lambda functions)
We also allow interpreters to define two "modes" of execution, with only the
first mode being considered part of the language specification itself:
* regular operation: the way the interpreter behaves by default
* tracing mode: the way the interpreter behaves when a trace hook has been
registered in one or more threads via an implementation dependent mechanism
like ``sys.settrace`` ([4]_) in CPython's ``sys`` module or
``PyEval_SetTrace`` ([5]_) in CPython's C API
For regular operation, this PEP proposes elevating most of the current behaviour
of the CPython reference implementation to become part of the language
specification, *except* that each call to ``locals()`` at function scope will
create a new dictionary object, rather than caching a common dict instance in
the frame object that each invocation will update and return.
For tracing mode, this PEP proposes changes to CPython's behaviour at function
scope that make the ``locals()`` builtin semantics identical to those used in
regular operation, while also making the related frame API semantics clearer
and easier for interactive debuggers to rely on.
The proposed tracing mode changes also affect the semantics of frame object
references obtained through other means, such as via a traceback, or via the
``sys._getframe()`` API.
New ``locals()`` documentation
------------------------------
The heart of this proposal is to revise the documentation for the ``locals()``
builtin to read as follows:
Return a mapping object representing the current local symbol table, with
variable names as the keys, and their currently bound references as the
values.
At module scope, as well as when using ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` with a
single namespace, this function returns the same namespace as ``globals()``.
At class scope, it returns the namespace that will be passed to the
metaclass constructor.
When using ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` with separate local and global
namespaces, it returns the local namespace passed in to the function call.
In all of the above cases, each call to ``locals()`` in a given frame of
execution will return the *same* mapping object. Changes made through
the mapping object returned from ``locals()`` will be visible as bound,
rebound, or deleted local variables, and binding, rebinding, or deleting
local variables will immediately affect the contents of the returned mapping
object.
At function scope (including for generators and coroutines), each call to
``locals()`` instead returns a fresh snapshot of the function's local
variables and any nonlocal cell references. In this case, changes made via
the snapshot are *not* written back to the corresponding local variables or
nonlocal cell references, and binding, rebinding, or deleting local
variables and nonlocal cell references does *not* affect the contents
of previously created snapshots.
There would also be a versionchanged note for Python 3.9:
In prior versions, the semantics of mutating the mapping object returned
from ``locals()`` were formally undefined. In CPython specifically,
the mapping returned at function scope could be implicitly refreshed by
other operations, such as calling ``locals()`` again, or the interpreter
implicitly invoking a Python level trace function. Obtaining the legacy
CPython behaviour now requires explicit calls to update the originally
returned snapshot from a freshly updated one.
For reference, the current documentation of this builtin reads as follows:
Update and return a dictionary representing the current local symbol table.
Free variables are returned by locals() when it is called in function
blocks, but not in class blocks.
Note: The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes may
not affect the values of local and free variables used by the interpreter.
(In other words: the status quo is that the semantics and behaviour of
``locals()`` are formally implementation defined, whereas the proposed
state after this PEP is that the only implementation defined behaviour will be
that associated with whether or not the implementation emulates the CPython
frame API, with the behaviour in all other cases being defined by the language
and library references)
Module scope
------------
At module scope, as well as when using ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` with a
single namespace, ``locals()`` must return the same object as ``globals()``,
which must be the actual execution namespace (available as
``inspect.currentframe().f_locals`` in implementations that provide access
to frame objects).
Variable assignments during subsequent code execution in the same scope must
dynamically change the contents of the returned mapping, and changes to the
returned mapping must change the values bound to local variable names in the
execution environment.
The semantics at module scope are required to be the same in both tracing
mode (if provided by the implementation) and in regular operation.
To capture this expectation as part of the language specification, the following
paragraph will be added to the documentation for ``locals()``:
At module scope, as well as when using ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` with a
single namespace, this function returns the same namespace as ``globals()``.
This part of the proposal does not require any changes to the reference
implementation - it is standardisation of the current behaviour.
Class scope
-----------
At class scope, as well as when using ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` with separate
global and local namespaces, ``locals()`` must return the specified local
namespace (which may be supplied by the metaclass ``__prepare__`` method
in the case of classes). As for module scope, this must be a direct reference
to the actual execution namespace (available as
``inspect.currentframe().f_locals`` in implementations that provide access
to frame objects).
Variable assignments during subsequent code execution in the same scope must
change the contents of the returned mapping, and changes to the returned mapping
must change the values bound to local variable names in the
execution environment.
The mapping returned by ``locals()`` will *not* be used as the actual class
namespace underlying the defined class (the class creation process will copy
the contents to a fresh dictionary that is only accessible by going through the
class machinery).
For nested classes defined inside a function, any nonlocal cells referenced from
the class scope are *not* included in the ``locals()`` mapping.
The semantics at class scope are required to be the same in both tracing
mode (if provided by the implementation) and in regular operation.
To capture this expectation as part of the language specification, the following
two paragraphs will be added to the documentation for ``locals()``:
When using ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` with separate local and global
namespaces, [this function] returns the given local namespace.
At class scope, it returns the namespace that will be passed to the metaclass
constructor.
This part of the proposal does not require any changes to the reference
implementation - it is standardisation of the current behaviour.
Function scope
--------------
At function scope, interpreter implementations are granted significant freedom
to optimise local variable access, and hence are NOT required to permit
arbitrary modification of local and nonlocal variable bindings through the
mapping returned from ``locals()``.
Historically, this leniency has been described in the language specification
with the words "The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes
may not affect the values of local and free variables used by the interpreter."
This PEP proposes to change that text to instead say:
At function scope (including for generators and coroutines), each call to
``locals()`` instead returns a fresh snapshot of the function's local
variables and any nonlocal cell references. In this case, changes made via
the snapshot are *not* written back to the corresponding local variables or
nonlocal cell references, and binding, rebinding, or deleting local
variables and nonlocal cell references does *not* affect the contents
of previously created snapshots.
This part of the proposal *does* require changes to the CPython reference
implementation, as CPython currently returns a shared mapping object that may
be implicitly refreshed by additional calls to ``locals()``, and the
"write back" strategy currently used to support namespace changes
from trace functions also doesn't comply with it (and causes the quirky
behavioural problems mentioned in the Rationale).
CPython Implementation Changes
==============================
Resolving the issues with tracing mode behaviour
------------------------------------------------
The current cause of CPython's tracing mode quirks (both the side effects from
simply installing a tracing function and the fact that writing values back to
function locals only works for the specific function being traced) is the way
that locals mutation support for trace hooks is currently implemented: the
``PyFrame_LocalsToFast`` function.
When a trace function is installed, CPython currently does the following for
function frames (those where the code object uses "fast locals" semantics):
1. Calls ``PyFrame_FastToLocals`` to update the dynamic snapshot
2. Calls the trace hook (with tracing of the hook itself disabled)
3. Calls ``PyFrame_LocalsToFast`` to capture any changes made to the dynamic
snapshot
This approach is problematic for a few different reasons:
* Even if the trace function doesn't mutate the snapshot, the final step resets
any cell references back to the state they were in before the trace function
was called (this is the root cause of the bug report in [1]_)
* If the trace function *does* mutate the snapshot, but then does something
that causes the snapshot to be refreshed, those changes are lost (this is
one aspect of the bug report in [3]_)
* If the trace function attempts to mutate the local variables of a frame other
than the one being traced (e.g. ``frame.f_back.f_locals``), those changes
will almost certainly be lost (this is another aspect of the bug report in
[3]_)
* If a ``locals()`` reference is passed to another function, and *that*
function mutates the snapshot namespace, then those changes *may* be written
back to the execution frame *if* a trace hook is installed
The proposed resolution to this problem is to take advantage of the fact that
whereas functions typically access their *own* namespace using the language
defined ``locals()`` builtin, trace functions necessarily use the implementation
dependent ``frame.f_locals`` interface, as a frame reference is what gets
passed to hook implementations.
Instead of being a direct reference to the internal dynamic snapshot used to
populate the independent snapshots returned by ``locals()``, ``frame.f_locals``
will be updated to instead return a dedicated proxy type (implemented as a
private subclass of the existing ``types.MappingProxyType``) that has two
internal attributes not exposed as part of the Python runtime API:
* *mapping*: an implicitly updated snapshot of the function local variables
and closure references, as well as any arbitrary items that have been set via
the mapping API, even if they don't have storage allocated for them on the
underlying frame
* *frame*: the underlying frame that the snapshot is for
For backwards compatibility, the stored snapshot will continue to be made
available through the public ``PyEval_GetLocals()`` C API.
``__getitem__`` operations on the proxy will read directly from the stored
snapshot.
The stored snapshot is implicitly updated when the ``f_locals`` attribute is
retrieved from the frame object, as well as individual keys being updated by
mutating operations on the proxy itself. This means that if a reference to the
proxy is obtained from within the function, the proxy won't implicitly pick up
name binding operations that take place as the function executes - the
``f_locals`` attribute on the frame will need to be accessed again in order to
trigger a refresh.
``__setitem__`` and ``__delitem__`` operations on the proxy will affect not only
the dynamic snapshot, but *also* the corresponding fast local or cell reference
on the underlying frame.
After a frame has finished executing, cell references can still be updated via
the proxy, but the link back to the underlying frame is explicitly broken to
avoid creating a persistent reference cycle that unexpectedly keeps frames
alive.
Other MutableMapping methods will behave as expected for a mapping with these
essential method semantics.
Making the behaviour at function scope less surprising
------------------------------------------------------
The ``locals()`` builtin will be made aware of the new fast locals proxy type,
and when it detects it on a frame, will return a fresh snapshot of the local
namespace (i.e. the equivalent of ``dict(frame.f_locals)``) rather than
returning the proxy directly.
Changes to the public CPython C API
-----------------------------------
The existing ``PyEval_GetLocals()`` API returns a borrowed reference, which
means it cannot be updated to return the new dynamic snapshots at function
scope. Instead, it will return a borrowed reference to the internal mapping
maintained by the fast locals proxy. This shared mapping will behave similarly
to the existing shared mapping in Python 3.8 and earlier, but the exact
conditions under which it gets refreshed will be different. Specifically:
* accessing the Python level ``f_locals`` frame attribute
* any call to ``PyFrame_GetPyLocals()`` or ``PyFrame_GetLocalsAttribute()``
for the frame
* any call to ``PyEval_GetLocals()``, ``PyEval_GetPyLocals()`` or the Python
``locals()`` builtin while the frame is running
A new ``PyFrame_GetPyLocals(frame)`` API will be provided such that
``PyFrame_GetPyLocals(PyEval_GetFrame())`` directly matches the
semantics of the Python ``locals()`` builtin, returning a shallow copy of the
internal mapping at function scope, rather than a direct reference to it.
A new ``PyEval_GetPyLocals()`` API will be provided as a convenience wrapper
for the above operation that is suitable for inclusion in the stable ABI.
A new ``PyFrame_GetLocalsAttribute(frame)`` API will be provided as the C level
equivalent of accessing ``pyframe.f_locals`` in Python. Like the Python level
descriptor, the new API will implicitly create the write-through proxy object
for function level frames if it doesn't already exist, and update the stored
mapping to ensure it reflects the current state of the function local variables
and closure references.
The ``PyFrame_LocalsToFast()`` function will be changed to always emit
``RuntimeError``, explaining that it is no longer a supported operation, and
affected code should be updated to use ``PyFrame_GetPyLocals(frame)`` or
``PyFrame_GetLocalsAttribute(frame)`` instead.
Additions to the stable ABI
---------------------------
The new ``PyEval_GetPyLocals()`` API will be added to the stable ABI. The other
new C API functions will be part of the CPython specific API only.
Design Discussion
=================
Changing ``locals()`` to return independent snapshots at function scope
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
The ``locals()`` builtin is a required part of the language, and in the
reference implementation it has historically returned a mutable mapping with
the following characteristics:
* each call to ``locals()`` returns the *same* mapping object
* for namespaces where ``locals()`` returns a reference to something other than
the actual local execution namespace, each call to ``locals()`` updates the
mapping object with the current state of the local variables and any referenced
nonlocal cells
* changes to the returned mapping *usually* aren't written back to the
local variable bindings or the nonlocal cell references, but write backs
can be triggered by doing one of the following:
* installing a Python level trace hook (write backs then happen whenever
the trace hook is called)
* running a function level wildcard import (requires bytecode injection in Py3)
* running an ``exec`` statement in the function's scope (Py2 only, since
``exec`` became an ordinary builtin in Python 3)
Originally this PEP proposed to retain the first two of these properties,
while changing the third in order to address the outright behaviour bugs that
it can cause.
In [7]_ Nathaniel Smith made a persuasive case that we could make the behaviour
of ``locals()`` at function scope substantially less confusing by retaining only
the second property and having each call to ``locals()`` at function scope
return an *independent* snapshot of the local variables and closure references
rather than updating an implicitly shared snapshot.
As this revised design also made the implementation markedly easier to follow,
the PEP was updated to propose this change in behaviour, rather than retaining
the historical shared snapshot.
Keeping ``locals()`` as a snapshot at function scope
----------------------------------------------------
As discussed in [7]_, it would theoretically be possible to change the semantics
of the ``locals()`` builtin to return the write-through proxy at function scope,
rather than switching it to return independent snapshots.
This PEP doesn't (and won't) propose this as it's a backwards incompatible
change in practice, even though code that relies on the current behaviour is
technically operating in an undefined area of the language specification.
Consider the following code snippet::
def example():
x = 1
locals()["x"] = 2
print(x)
Even with a trace hook installed, that function will consistently print ``1``
on the current reference interpreter implementation::
>>> example()
1
>>> import sys
>>> def basic_hook(*args):
... return basic_hook
...
>>> sys.settrace(basic_hook)
>>> example()
1
Similarly, ``locals()`` can be passed to the ``exec()`` and ``eval()`` builtins
at function scope (either explicitly or implicitly) without risking unexpected
rebinding of local variables or closure references.
Provoking the reference interpreter into incorrectly mutating the local variable
state requires a more complex setup where a nested function closes over a
variable being rebound in the outer function, and due to the use of either
threads, generators, or coroutines, it's possible for a trace function to start
running for the nested function before the rebinding operation in the outer
function, but finish running after the rebinding operation has taken place (in
which case the rebinding will be reverted, which is the bug reported in [1]_).
In addition to preserving the de facto semantics which have been in place since
PEP 227 introduced nested scopes in Python 2.1, the other benefit of restricting
the write-through proxy support to the implementation-defined frame object API
is that it means that only interpreter implementations which emulate the full
frame API need to offer the write-through capability at all, and that
JIT-compiled implementations only need to enable it when a frame introspection
API is invoked, or a trace hook is installed, not whenever ``locals()`` is
accessed at function scope.
Returning snapshots from ``locals()`` at function scope also means that static
analysis for function level code will be more reliable, as only access to the
frame machinery will allow mutation of local and nonlocal variables in a way
that's hidden from static analysis.
What happens with the default args for ``eval()`` and ``exec()``?
-----------------------------------------------------------------
These are formally defined as inheriting ``globals()`` and ``locals()`` from
the calling scope by default.
There isn't any need for the PEP to change these defaults, so it doesn't.
However, usage of the C level ``PyEval_GetLocals()`` API in the CPython
reference implementation will need to be reviewed to determine which cases
need to be changed to use the new ``PyEval_GetPyLocals()`` API instead.
These changes will also have potential performance implications, especially
for functions with large numbers of local variables (e.g. if these functions
are called in a loop, calling ``locals()`` once before the loop and then passing
the namespace into the function explicitly will give the same semantics and
performance characteristics as the status quo, whereas relying on the implicit
default would create a new snapshot on each iteration).
(Note: the reference implementation draft PR has updated the ``locals()`` and
``vars()`` builtins to use ``PyEval_GetPyLocals()``, but has not yet
updated the default local namespace arguments for ``eval()`` and ``exec()``).
Changing the frame API semantics in regular operation
-----------------------------------------------------
Earlier versions of this PEP proposed having the semantics of the frame
``f_locals`` attribute depend on whether or not a tracing hook was currently
installed - only providing the write-through proxy behaviour when a tracing hook
was active, and otherwise behaving the same as the historical ``locals()``
builtin.
That was adopted as the original design proposal for a couple of key reasons,
one pragmatic and one more philosophical:
* Object allocations and method wrappers aren't free, and tracing functions
aren't the only operations that access frame locals from outside the function.
Restricting the changes to tracing mode meant that the additional memory and
execution time overhead of these changes would be as close to zero in regular
operation as we can possibly make them.
* "Don't change what isn't broken": the current tracing mode problems are caused
by a requirement that's specific to tracing mode (support for external
rebinding of function local variable references), so it made sense to also
restrict any related fixes to tracing mode
However, actually attempting to implement and document that dynamic approach
highlighted the fact that it makes for a really subtle runtime state dependent
behaviour distinction in how ``frame.f_locals`` works, and creates several
new edge cases around how ``f_locals`` behaves as trace functions are added
and removed.
Accordingly, the design was switched to the current one, where
``frame.f_locals`` is always a write-through proxy, and ``locals()`` is always
a snapshot, which is both simpler to implement and easier to explain.
Regardless of how the CPython reference implementation chooses to handle this,
optimising compilers and interpreters also remain free to impose additional
restrictions on debuggers, such as making local variable mutation through frame
objects an opt-in behaviour that may disable some optimisations (just as the
emulation of CPython's frame API is already an opt-in flag in some Python
implementations).
Historical semantics at function scope
--------------------------------------
The current semantics of mutating ``locals()`` and ``frame.f_locals`` in CPython
are rather quirky due to historical implementation details:
* actual execution uses the fast locals array for local variable bindings and
cell references for nonlocal variables
* there's a ``PyFrame_FastToLocals`` operation that populates the frame's
``f_locals`` attribute based on the current state of the fast locals array
and any referenced cells. This exists for three reasons:
* allowing trace functions to read the state of local variables
* allowing traceback processors to read the state of local variables
* allowing ``locals()`` to read the state of local variables
* a direct reference to ``frame.f_locals`` is returned from ``locals()``, so if
you hand out multiple concurrent references, then all those references will be
to the exact same dictionary
* the two common calls to the reverse operation, ``PyFrame_LocalsToFast``, were
removed in the migration to Python 3: ``exec`` is no longer a statement (and
hence can no longer affect function local namespaces), and the compiler now
disallows the use of ``from module import *`` operations at function scope
* however, two obscure calling paths remain: ``PyFrame_LocalsToFast`` is called
as part of returning from a trace function (which allows debuggers to make
changes to the local variable state), and you can also still inject the
``IMPORT_STAR`` opcode when creating a function directly from a code object
rather than via the compiler
This proposal deliberately *doesn't* formalise these semantics as is, since they
only make sense in terms of the historical evolution of the language and the
reference implementation, rather than being deliberately designed.
Implementation
==============
The reference implementation update is in development as a draft pull
request on GitHub ([6]_).
Acknowledgements
================
Thanks to Nathaniel J. Smith for proposing the write-through proxy idea in
[1]_ and pointing out some critical design flaws in earlier iterations of the
PEP that attempted to avoid introducing such a proxy.
References
==========
.. [1] Broken local variable assignment given threads + trace hook + closure
(https://bugs.python.org/issue30744)
.. [2] Clarify the required behaviour of ``locals()``
(https://bugs.python.org/issue17960)
.. [3] Updating function local variables from pdb is unreliable
(https://bugs.python.org/issue9633)
.. [4] CPython's Python API for installing trace hooks
(https://docs.python.org/dev/library/sys.html#sys.settrace)
.. [5] CPython's C API for installing trace hooks
(https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_SetTrace)
.. [6] PEP 558 reference implementation
(https://github.com/python/cpython/pull/3640/files)
.. [7] Nathaniel's review of possible function level semantics for locals()
(https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2019-May/157738.html)
Copyright
=========
This document has been placed in the public domain.
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